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The endoscope has been increasingly used to treat various spinal diseases. However, the application of spinal endoscopy in an intradural lesion has been less common compared to that of an epidural counterpart. The authors reviewed existing literature describing spinal endoscopy as an aid in surgical treatment for intradural pathologies. Importantly, available literature indicated the safety and feasibility of spinal endoscopy for intradural lesions. Especially, an endoscope was utilized for intradural subarachnoid cystic lesions, tethered cord syndrome, extramedullary tumors, spinal arteriovenous malformations, and cordectomy for intractable pain. The results of this review should enhance further development and broaden application of an endoscope for various intradural pathologies.
Keywords:
Arachnoid cyst, cordotomy, endoscope, intradural extramedullary tumors, tethered cord syndrome
The concept of direct spinal cord visualization by intradural endoscopy was introduced in medical practice in the 1930s (1,2). However, until recently, an endoscope had been too large or not reliable enough to be safely inserted into the intradural space (3), so spinal intradural endoscopy was not widely performed. Rather, the spinal endoscopic technique has evolved in the treatment of extradural pathology, including herniated discs and spinal canal stenosis, through minimally invasive methods (4). After recent technical advancements have led to create a small and flexible endoscope (3,5,6), the enthusiasm to apply such a novel device to intradural pathologies was revived. Before using an endoscope in clinical cases, cadaveric studies were conducted to verify the usefulness and safety of manipulation in the intradural space (3,7,8).
In this review, we summarized recent clinical reports describing how spinal intradural endoscopy has provided direct and magnified visions inside the spinal canal from small and limited exposure. More importantly, to discuss its usefulness, safety, and limitations, we categorized available literature as follows: cystic and inflammatory diseases in the subarachnoid space, tethered cord syndrome, intradural extramedullary tumors, spinal arteriovenous malformations (AVM), and percutaneous cordotomy for intractable pain ( ).
A flexible fiberscope that is sufficiently small can be passed through the dura into the intradural space with minimum incision. Based on an anatomical study, the sizes of the ventral and dorsal subarachnoid space around the spinal cord were 1–3 mm and 2–6 mm, respectively (3). Thus, an endoscope with an external diameter of <2 mm can safely pass along the spinal cord. Several authors indicated the usefulness of spinal endoscopy in cases of spinal arachnoid cysts (9-11). In surgery, following a few levels of hemilaminectomy, an endoscope was inserted into the cyst cavity through the dura and bone window (9). The endoscope was moved in the cranial and caudal directions to penetrate or remove the cyst wall. Intraoperative fluoroscopy helps surgeons confirm the position of the endoscope relative to the vertebral levels, which would provide important intraoperative feedback (9). Eventually, these maneuvers allowed to establish communications of the cyst cavity and the subarachnoid space, resulting in clinical improvements of neurological symptoms ( ) (9). Although long-term follow-up is required to estimate recurrence rates, endoscopic treatment can be an important surgical intervention option.
Open in a separate windowThe same strategy can be applied to subarachnoid inflammatory disease, in which observation and/or biopsy is required. Surgeons can observe a relatively long range along the dorsal and ventral spinal cord surface with an endoscope. In a case of suspected neurosarcoidosis, spinal endoscopic biopsy of the nodular lesion in the lumbar spinal cord established the diagnosis (12). Torres-Corzo et al. reported a rare case of neurocysticercosis, a parasitic disease affecting the human central nervous system, caused by the tapeworm Taenia solium (13). In this case, a flexible spinal endoscope was valuable to explore the entire subarachnoid space and remove parasites and cysticerci. Eventually, thickened adhesive arachnoid membranes were cleared, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flow was restored under direct vision through an endoscope. Furthermore, cases of anterior located sacral meningocele and superficial siderosis were successfully treated with less invasive intradural spinal endoscopy (14,15).
These cases indicated that various intraspinal subarachnoid lesions, including arachnoid cysts and arachnoiditis, can benefit from spinal endoscopy. Especially when pathologies were extensive and extending over multiple vertebral levels in the subarachnoid space, open surgical treatment often require large incisions. A better alternative is to use a flexible endoscope that can be inserted and advanced through a small opening, allowing a less invasive approach.
Endoscopy has also demonstrated diagnostic and therapeutic potential for tethered cord syndrome. In the lower lumbar vertebral level, an endoscope can be advanced through the cauda equina to observe the filum terminale, since the lumbar spine has a wider space compared to the thoracic or cervical vertebrae (3). Yörükoğlu et al. described a percutaneous fully endoscopic interlaminar approach to the filum terminale in cadaveric studies (7). In clinical cases, endoscopic observation was proven useful to visualize the filum terminale in 68 patients with tethered cord syndrome (16). Laminectomy and 2-mm dural incision was adequate to insert a flexible endoscope, which confirmed posterior displacement of the filum terminale, one of the diagnostic criteria of tethered cord syndrome (27).
Other authors described endoscopic untethering techniques for tethered cord syndrome (17-19). By interlaminar approach and 1-cm durotomy, a ridged endoscope could open the dura, coagulate and cut the filum terminale, and finally close the dura with continuous sutures. Although the number of the cases was small, a percutaneous endoscopic interlaminar approach may become a feasible option for untethering of the filum terminale in the near future.
Barami et al. reported their first experience of assisted use of an endoscope to remove ventrally located intradural extramedullary tumors (20). Spinal endoscopy can effectively provide views of the ventral spinal cord without retraction, which was difficult through a microscope. Parihar et al. confirmed that endoscopic surgery can be applied to spinal tumors located in any spinal vertebral level (21). They could successfully remove 18 tumors, if maximal sagittal and axial diameters did not exceed 4.1 cm and 1.8 cm, respectively. Zhu et al. demonstrated the feasibility of endoscopic removal of intradural extramedullary tumors through an interlaminar approach (22). Vital structures, including an artery and affected spinal nerve roots, were dissected and safely coagulated using a bipolar flexible radiofrequency probe. When an endoscope is used in combination with an interlaminar approach, it would cause minimum bone destruction. Patients can benefit from less postoperative pain, minimal blood loss, and shorter recovery period. In such cases, individualized surgical planning and satisfactory dural closure technique is a key to success. A method to secure watertight CSF leak closure can enhance further application of spinal endoscopy in this type of surgery.
Endo et al. proposed other examples of utilizing angled endoscope in direct surgery for spinal AVM. For instance, perimedullary arteriovenous fistulas in the cervical spine are often located on the ventral surface of the spinal cord with close relationship to the anterior spinal artery (23). In such case, it would be difficult to visualize lesions under the microscope through a common posterolateral approach unless the spinal cord is extensively rotated. Instead, a combination of posterolateral exposure and assisted use of endoscopy can provide sufficient views of the ventral spinal cord without rotating it (24). Since the endoscopy was introduced following an open microsurgical procedure, hemilaminectomy and paramedian 2cm dural incision were required. By securing an adequate space to insert the rigid angled endoscope from posterolateral exposures, 360° circumferential views of the spinal cord surface can be appreciated with assisted use of an endoscope (23). When combined with indocyanine green (ICG) fluorescence endoscopy, it can further enhance its ability (24,25). Surgeons can appreciate detailed information regarding vascular anatomy and blood flow through ICG fluorescence endoscopy, which is important for proper management of spinal cord vascular lesions ( ).
Open in a separate windowTechnical advancements have already resulted in smaller-diameter spinal endoscopes, making percutaneous use of an endoscope practical. Tanaka et al. used a percutaneous endoscope to perforate a spinal arachnoid cyst and restore CSF flow (11). The size of the endoscope is similar to that of a needle, therefore it can percutaneously puncture and provide a magnified view of the spinal cord surface. Fonoff et al. have contributed to the development of percutaneous endoscopic procedures for intractable pain (26,28). Using percutaneous dual channels, an endoscope could provide clear views of the pial surface of the spinal cord and tip of a radiofrequency cordotomy probe. Since surgeons appreciate real-time views, it became more reliable in determining targets for electrode insertion. Furthermore, trauma or injury of the spinal cord vessels or nerve roots is less likely to occur. As a result, procedures resulted in sufficient pain control with no complications of CSF leak (26). According to a recent review, cordotomy can be an optional method to treat cancer pain (29). As we consider that the increasing number of patients with cancer pain is related to minimal invasiveness and safety of endoscopic procedure, percutaneous endoscopic cordotomy can have wider clinical application.
In this review, we focused on the usefulness of intradural spinal endoscopy, highlighting that both flexible and rigid angled endoscopes can provide views that are otherwise difficult to obtain through a microscope. However, limitations still exist regarding the degrees of manipulation that endoscopic instruments can offer. Thus, recent achievements regarding manipulation in endoscopic procedures were relatively confined to basic maneuvers, as pointed out elsewhere (30). The risk of bleeding and difficulty in obtaining hemostasis in endoscopic procedures should also be taken into account (22). Considering that technical difficulties may possibly be encountered during full endoscopic procedures, surgeons should be able to convert to a microsurgical procedure, if necessary. It can work as a backup and safeguard option in spinal intradural endoscopic surgery.
Another important issue is how to avoid postoperative CSF leak. In cases of endoscopic lumbar spinal surgery, the rate of dural tears was reported as high as 8.6% (31). Although there is no gold standard in managing dural tears or dural closure in endoscopic spine surgery, direct dural suturing techniques in endonasal surgery and in minimally invasive spine surgery could be helpful (32,33). If surgeons felt more comfortable in achieving water-tight dural closure under endoscopy, application of endoscopic spine procedures for both intradural and extradural pathologies would expand.
Existing literature confirmed increased utilization of spinal endoscopy in various intradural pathologies. An endoscope can provide direct views of the spinal cord from a small incision. By moving a fiberscope along the spinal cord, longitudinal lesions extending to multiple vertebral levels can be approached and surgically managed. Moreover, an endoscope can provide magnified views from different angles from a microscope. Using a rigid angled endoscope, even ventral spinal cord tumors or vascular lesions can be surgically managed by posterolateral approach. Technical advancements make percutaneous procedures possible in selected clinical indications. As experiences accumulate with further technical advancements, we believe that intradural endoscopy will be applied in the treatment of other diseases in this region.
The authors thank Enago (www.enago.jp) for the English language review.
Funding: None.
Ethical Statement: The authors are accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved.
Open Access Statement: This is an Open Access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0), which permits the non-commercial replication and distribution of the article with the strict proviso that no changes or edits are made and the original work is properly cited (including links to both the formal publication through the relevant DOI and the license). See: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
Provenance and Peer Review: This article was commissioned by the Guest Editors (Hisashi Koga and Alf Giese) for the series “Full-endoscopic Spine Surgery” published in Journal of Spine Surgery. The article was sent for external peer review organized by the Guest Editors and the editorial office.
Conflicts of Interest: Both authors have completed the ICMJE uniform disclosure form (available at http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/jss.2020.01.06). The series “Full-endoscopic Spine Surgery” was commissioned by the editorial office without any funding or sponsorship. The authors have no other conflicts of interest to declare.
Herniated disc by performing endoscopic discectomy in all three areas (degrees) of the spine i.e. lumbar, cervical and thoracic spine
Spinal stenosis by performing an endoscopic foraminotomy, that is, opening the foramen that puts pressure on/entraps the nerve coming out of it
Central and Oblique Stenosis of the lumbar spine (mild to moderate degree) by endoscopic decompression – laminectomy
Discogenic Pain (lumbar/waist pain) by performing a thermal surgical remodeling of the spinal ring with a special radiofrequency device or a laser device
Facet joint syndrome (i.e. its symptom, pain) by performing endoscopic rhizotomy and lastly,
Spinal instability by performing endoscopically assisted spinal fusion.
Lumbar pain: endoscopic thermal spinal ring remodeling, assisted endoscopic spinal fusion, endoscopic rhizotomy,
Sciatica (leg pain): endoscopic discectomy, endoscopic laminectomy, endoscopic decompression,
Cervical pain (neck pain or pain in one or both hands): endoscopic discectomy, endoscopic posterior laminectomy and finally
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Thoracic pain and Intercostal Neuralgia: thoracic endoscopic rhizotomy, thoracic endoscopic discectomy.
This technique is usually performed under local anesthesia and neuroleptic analgesia. For the safety of the patient’s nerve elements, the physician is in constant communication with the patient and thus can avoid the risk of injury to a nerve. Endoscopic surgery is a safe technique if performed without anesthesia. If performed under anesthesia, i.e. general anesthesia, it can become dangerous especially for inexperienced surgeons. It is performed from the sides of the spine without injuring muscles, ligaments and bone structures, as in classical techniques (open discectomy – laminectomy – microdiscectomy etc.) and is therefore considered as atraumatic and bloodless. It is radiographed with a special portable x-ray machine located in the operating room (c-arm) so that the surgeon can at any time check the position of the micro-instruments in relation to the patient’s spine, thereby ensuring accuracy and safety.
As mentioned, the endoscope transfers the image to a screen inside the operating room monitored by the surgeon. This image is enlarged, so the surgeon safely performs the surgery as the structures of the spine (nerves, intervertebral discs, ligaments, etc.) are clearly distinguished and the possibility of injury is minimized. Thus, the surgeon can remove an intervertebral disc, widen a spinal foramen, perform rhizotomy and generally all the endoscopic techniques depending on the patient’s condition, through a small incision with a diameter of 1 cm, that is, a regular surgery is performed with less risk, without destroying healthy structures. The special micro-tools that go through the endoscope are duplicates (miniatures) of all the tools used in the classic open spine surgeries except that they are thinner to go through the endoscope.
Possible complications of endoscopic microdiscectomy occur during surgery or immediately after surgery.
The average surgical time required is 40 minutes. The patient’s stay in the clinic is about 3-5 hours in total, that is, a “walk in – walk out” procedure (no overnight stay is required). The patient walks immediately after being transferred to the ward, shortly after being transferred to bed. The patient can return to everyday activities on the same day or up to 3 weeks later and, depending on the type of work, the patient may return immediately for non-manual work or up to 3-6 weeks later (on average) for heavy manual work.
These techniques require training and special equipment. Surgeon training in specialized centers abroad on endoscopic spine surgery is deemed necessary. Another major factor that plays a key role in the success of the surgery is the equipment in the operating room. There should be a suitable surgical table, specially designed for spine surgery, a suitable X-ray machine that can be combined with the surgical table, appropriate monitors, the corresponding endoscopic equipment for spinal cord surgeries with the appropriate tools, as well as experienced personnel in the operating room, that is, an experienced radiologist and an experienced assistant nurse.
Compared to other transdermal methods (laser, radioablation, automated transdermal discectomy) it is superior, because the aforementioned are “blind” techniques. The endoscopic technique is performed with real-time vision and the previous techniques (laser, radiofrequency) can be used in a safer way. In addition, the range of diseases that can be treated endoscopically is broader than the one that can be treated by simple transdermal techniques.
With regard to microdiscectomy, that is, the discectomy performed under a microscope, the endoscopic discectomy is not clinically predominant, although the latter does not cause spinal instability, whereas in microdiscectomy this risk is non-negligible.
As regards the cervical spine, it is assumed that endoscopic discectomy outweighs earlier techniques that involve spinal fusion, which can be avoided by using endoscopic discectomy.
Most patients can go home on the same day or early on the next day.
Before leaving the hospital, a physiotherapist provides instructions on mobilization, that is, how to get out of bed and walk.
It is also recommended to avoid weight lifting, as well as bending and rotational movements for 2-4 weeks to avoid recurrence of the hernia.
Walking with gradually increased intensity is also beneficial, while seating for more than 45-60 minutes should be avoided.
It is usually not necessary in this operation. Occasionally it may be necessary depending on the circumstances and the patient for slightly better lumbar support during the immediate postoperative phase.
Most patients need no special care other than to keep the surgical trauma clean by covering it with small sterilized pad to prevent friction and irritation caused by the clothes.
The patient can bathe immediately after surgery as long as the incision is covered with waterproof gauze so that the trauma does not get wet. After the bath the gauze must be removed, the area should dry and a small sterile pad should be applied. A normal bath can be performed after 2 weeks post-operatively and provided that the surgical trauma is fully healed.
The patient can safely drive only when the postoperative pain has fully subsided, which is usually 3 to 10 days after surgery. The patient is not allowed to drive under the influence of opioid analgesics. However, it is not advisable to make long trips for up to 2 months.
The patient may return to office work in 1 week. In sports and manual work it is safe to return in 4-6 weeks, provided that the post-operative pain has completely subsided and muscle strength has returned.
The patient should be re-examined in 10 days after surgery. The doctor will inspect the surgical incision and examine the patient.
The outcome of these surgeries is usually excellent with total pain relief immediately after surgery. The success rates are approximately 95%.
Most patients report immediate improvement and return to their work and daily life without any problems.
MIS microdiscectomy is the procedure indicated in patients with intervertebral disc herniation with concomitant pain and/or neurological deficits (paralysis, hyposensitivity, etc.) and is the type of surgery applied for definitive treatment of the lumbar disc herniation.
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