How Does iron wire for buildings Work?

Metal rope

Wire rope is composed of as few as two solid, metal wires twisted into a helix that forms a composite rope, in a pattern known as laid rope. Larger diameter wire rope consists of multiple strands of such laid rope in a pattern known as cable laid. Manufactured using an industrial machine known as a strander, the wires are fed through a series of barrels and spun into their final composite orientation.

In stricter senses, the term wire rope refers to a diameter larger than 9.5 mm (3⁄8 in), with smaller gauges designated cable or cords.[1] Initially wrought iron wires were used, but today steel is the main material used for wire ropes.

Historically, wire rope evolved from wrought iron chains, which had a record of mechanical failure. While flaws in chain links or solid steel bars can lead to catastrophic failure, flaws in the wires making up a steel cable are less critical as the other wires easily take up the load. While friction between the individual wires and strands causes wear over the life of the rope, it also helps to compensate for minor failures in the short run.

Wire ropes were developed starting with mining hoist applications in the 1830s. Wire ropes are used dynamically for lifting and hoisting in cranes and elevators, and for transmission of mechanical power. Wire rope is also used to transmit force in mechanisms, such as a Bowden cable or the control surfaces of an airplane connected to levers and pedals in the cockpit. Only aircraft cables have WSC (wire strand core). Also, aircraft cables are available in smaller diameters than wire rope. For example, aircraft cables are available in 1.2 mm (3⁄64 in) diameter while most wire ropes begin at a 6.4 mm (1⁄4 in) diameter.[2] Static wire ropes are used to support structures such as suspension bridges or as guy wires to support towers. An aerial tramway relies on wire rope to support and move cargo overhead.

History

[

edit

]

Modern wire rope was invented by the German mining engineer Wilhelm Albert in the years between 1831 and 1834 for use in mining in the Harz Mountains in Clausthal, Lower Saxony, Germany.[3][4][5] It was quickly accepted because it proved superior strength from ropes made of hemp or of metal chains, such as had been used before.[6]

Wilhelm Albert's first ropes consisted of three strands consisting of four wires each. In 1840, Scotsman Robert Stirling Newall improved the process further.[7] In America wire rope was manufactured by John A. Roebling, starting in 1841[8] and forming the basis for his success in suspension bridge building. Roebling introduced a number of innovations in the design, materials and manufacture of wire rope. Ever with an ear to technology developments in mining and railroading, Josiah White and Erskine Hazard, principal owners[9] of the Lehigh Coal & Navigation Company (LC&N Co.) — as they had with the first blast furnaces in the Lehigh Valley — built a Wire Rope factory in Jim Thorpe, Pennsylvania,[8] in 1848, which provided lift cables for the Ashley Planes project, then the back track planes of the Summit Hill & Mauch Chunk Railroad, improving its attractiveness as a premier tourism destination, and vastly improving the throughput of the coal capacity since return of cars dropped from nearly four hours to less than 20 minutes.

The following decades featured a burgeoning increase in deep shaft mining in both Europe and North America as surface mineral deposits were exhausted and miners had to chase layers along inclined layers. The era was early in railroad development and steam engines lacked sufficient tractive effort to climb steep slopes, so inclined plane railways were common. This pushed development of cable hoists rapidly in the United States as surface deposits in the Anthracite Coal Region north and south dove deeper every year, and even the rich deposits in the Panther Creek Valley required LC&N Co. to drive their first shafts into lower slopes beginning Lansford and its Schuylkill County twin-town Coaldale.

The German engineering firm of Adolf Bleichert & Co. was founded in 1874 and began to build bicable aerial tramways for mining in the Ruhr Valley. With important patents, and dozens of working systems in Europe, Bleichert dominated the global industry, later licensing its designs and manufacturing techniques to Trenton Iron Works, New Jersey, USA which built systems across America. Adolf Bleichert & Co. went on to build hundreds of aerial tramways around the world: from Alaska to Argentina, Australia and Spitsbergen. The Bleichert company also built hundreds of aerial tramways for both the Imperial German Army and the Wehrmacht.

In the latter part of the 19th century, wire rope systems were used as a means of transmitting mechanical power[11] including for the new cable cars. Wire rope systems cost one-tenth as much and had lower friction losses than line shafts. Because of these advantages, wire rope systems were used to transmit power for a distance of a few miles or kilometers.[12]

Construction

[

edit

]

Wires

[

edit

]

Steel wires for wire ropes are normally made of non-alloy carbon steel with a carbon content of 0.4 to 0.95%. The very high strength of the rope wires enables wire ropes to support large tensile forces and to run over sheaves with relatively small diameters.

Strands

[

edit

]

In the so-called cross lay strands, the wires of the different layers cross each other. In the mostly used parallel lay strands, the lay length of all the wire layers is equal and the wires of any two superimposed layers are parallel, resulting in linear contact. The wire of the outer layer is supported by two wires of the inner layer. These wires are neighbors along the whole length of the strand. Parallel lay strands are made in one operation. The endurance of wire ropes with this kind of strand is always much greater than of those (seldom used) with cross lay strands. Parallel lay strands with two wire layers have the construction Filler, Seale or Warrington.

Spiral ropes

[

edit

]

In principle, spiral ropes are round strands as they have an assembly of layers of wires laid helically over a centre with at least one layer of wires being laid in the opposite direction to that of the outer layer. Spiral ropes can be dimensioned in such a way that they are non-rotating which means that under tension the rope torque is nearly zero. The open spiral rope consists only of round wires. The half-locked coil rope and the full-locked coil rope always have a centre made of round wires. The locked coil ropes have one or more outer layers of profile wires. They have the advantage that their construction prevents the penetration of dirt and water to a greater extent and it also protects them from loss of lubricant. In addition, they have one further very important advantage as the ends of a broken outer wire cannot leave the rope if it has the proper dimensions.

Stranded ropes

[

edit

]

Stranded ropes are an assembly of several strands laid helically in one or more layers around a core. This core can be one of three types. The first is a fiber core, made up of synthetic material or natural fibers like sisal. Synthetic fibers are stronger and more uniform but cannot absorb much lubricant. Natural fibers can absorb up to 15% of their weight in lubricant and so protect the inner wires much better from corrosion than synthetic fibers do. Fiber cores are the most flexible and elastic, but have the downside of getting crushed easily. The second type, wire strand core, is made up of one additional strand of wire, and is typically used for suspension. The third type is independent wire rope core (IWRC), which is the most durable in all types of environments.[13] Most types of stranded ropes only have one strand layer over the core (fibre core or steel core). The lay direction of the strands in the rope can be right (symbol Z) or left (symbol S) and the lay direction of the wires can be right (symbol z) or left (symbol s). This kind of rope is called ordinary lay rope if the lay direction of the wires in the outer strands is in the opposite direction to the lay of the outer strands themselves. If both the wires in the outer strands and the outer strands themselves have the same lay direction, the rope is called a lang lay rope (from Dutch langslag contrary to kruisslag,[14] formerly Albert's lay or langs lay). Regular lay means the individual wires were wrapped around the centers in one direction and the strands were wrapped around the core in the opposite direction.[2]

Multi-strand ropes are all more or less resistant to rotation and have at least two layers of strands laid helically around a centre. The direction of the outer strands is opposite to that of the underlying strand layers. Ropes with three strand layers can be nearly non-rotating. Ropes with two strand layers are mostly only low-rotating.[15]

Classification according to usage

[

edit

]

Depending on where they are used, wire ropes have to fulfill different requirements. The main uses are:

• Running ropes (stranded ropes) are bent over sheaves and drums. They are therefore stressed mainly by bending and secondly by tension.
• Stationary ropes, stay ropes (spiral ropes, mostly full-locked) have to carry tensile forces and are therefore mainly loaded by static and fluctuating tensile stresses. Ropes used for suspension are often called cables. [16]
• Track ropes (full locked ropes) have to act as rails for the rollers of cabins or other loads in aerial ropeways and cable cranes. In contrast to running ropes, track ropes do not take on the curvature of the rollers. Under the roller force, a so-called free bending radius of the rope occurs. This radius increases (and the bending stresses decrease) with the tensile force and decreases with the roller force.
• Wire rope slings (stranded ropes) are used to harness various kinds of goods. These slings are stressed by the tensile forces but first of all by bending stresses when bent over the more or less sharp edges of the goods.

Rope drive

[

edit

]

Technical regulations apply to the design of rope drives for cranes, elevators, rope ways and mining installations. Factors that are considered in design include:[17]

• Number of working cycles allowed before replacement or breakage of the rope
• Donandt force (yielding tensile force for a given bending diameter ratio

  D

  /

  d

  ) - strict limit. The nominal rope tensile force

  S

  must be smaller than the Donandt force

  SD1

  .
• Rope safety factor, ratio between the rope's breaking strength and the maximum load to be expected
• Allowable number of broken strands before replacement
• Optimal rope diameter for a given sheave diameter, so as to obtain best working life

The calculation of the rope drive limits depends on:

• Data of the used wire rope
• Rope tensile force

  S

• Diameter

  D

  of sheave or drum
• Simple bendings per working cycle

  wsim

• Reverse bendings per working cycle

  wrev

• Combined fluctuating tension and bending per working cycle

  wcom

• Relative fluctuating tensile force

  ΔS/S

• Rope bending length

  l

Safety

[

edit

]

The wire ropes are stressed by fluctuating forces, by wear, by corrosion and in seldom cases by extreme forces. The rope life is finite and the safety is only ensured by inspection for the detection of wire breaks on a reference rope length, of cross-section loss, as well as other failures so that the wire rope can be replaced before a dangerous situation occurs. Installations should be designed to facilitate the inspection of the wire ropes.

Lifting installations for passenger transportation require that a combination of several methods should be used to prevent a car from plunging downwards. Elevators must have redundant bearing ropes and a safety gear. Ropeways and mine hoistings must be permanently supervised by a responsible manager and the rope must be inspected by a magnetic method capable of detecting inner wire breaks.

Terminations

[

edit

]

The end of a wire rope tends to fray readily, and cannot be easily connected to plant and equipment. There are different ways of securing the ends of wire ropes to prevent fraying. The common and useful type of end fitting for a wire rope is to turn the end back to form a loop. The loose end is then fixed back on the wire rope. Termination efficiencies vary from about 70% for a Flemish eye alone; to nearly 90% for a Flemish eye and splice; to 100% for potted ends and swagings.[citation needed]

Thimbles

[

edit

]

When the wire rope is terminated with a loop, there is a risk that it will bend too tightly, especially when the loop is connected to a device that concentrates the load on a relatively small area. A thimble can be installed inside the loop to preserve the natural shape of the loop, and protect the cable from pinching and abrading on the inside of the loop. The use of thimbles in loops is industry best practice. The thimble prevents the load from coming into direct contact with the wires.

Wire rope clips

[

edit

]

A wire rope clip, sometimes called a clamp, is used to fix the loose end of the loop back to the wire rope. It usually consists of a U-bolt, a forged saddle, and two nuts. The two layers of wire rope are placed in the U-bolt. The saddle is then fitted to the bolt over the ropes (the saddle includes two holes to fit to the U-bolt). The nuts secure the arrangement in place. Two or more clips are usually used to terminate a wire rope depending on the diameter. As many as eight may be needed for a 2 in (50.8 mm) diameter rope.

The mnemonic "never saddle a dead horse" means that when installing clips, the saddle portion of the assembly is placed on the load-bearing or "live" side, not on the non-load-bearing or "dead" side of the cable. This is to protect the live or stress-bearing end of the rope against crushing and abuse. The flat bearing seat and extended prongs of the body are designed to protect the rope and are always placed against the live end.[18]

The US Navy and most regulatory bodies do not recommend the use of such clips as permanent terminations unless periodically checked and re-tightened.

Eye splice or Flemish eye

[

edit

]

An eye splice may be used to terminate the loose end of a wire rope when forming a loop. The strands of the end of a wire rope are unwound a certain distance, then bent around so that the end of the unwrapped length forms an eye. The unwrapped strands are then plaited back into the wire rope, forming the loop, or an eye, called an eye splice.

A Flemish eye, or Dutch Splice, involves unwrapping three strands (the strands need to be next to each other, not alternates) of the wire and keeping them off to one side. The remaining strands are bent around, until the end of the wire meets the "V" where the unwrapping finished, to form the eye. The strands kept to one side are now re-wrapped by wrapping from the end of the wire back to the "V" of the eye. These strands are effectively rewrapped along the wire in the opposite direction to their original lay. When this type of rope splice is used specifically on wire rope, it is called a "Molly Hogan", and, by some, a "Dutch" eye instead of a "Flemish" eye.[19]

Swaged terminations

[

edit

]

Swaging is a method of wire rope termination that refers to the installation technique. The purpose of swaging wire rope fittings is to connect two wire rope ends together, or to otherwise terminate one end of wire rope to something else. A mechanical or hydraulic swager is used to compress and deform the fitting, creating a permanent connection. Threaded studs, ferrules, sockets, and sleeves are examples of different swaged terminations.[20][21] Swaging ropes with fibre cores is not recommended.

Wedge sockets

[

edit

]

A wedge socket termination is useful when the fitting needs to be replaced frequently. For example, if the end of a wire rope is in a high-wear region, the rope may be periodically trimmed, requiring the termination hardware to be removed and reapplied. An example of this is on the ends of the drag ropes on a dragline. The end loop of the wire rope enters a tapered opening in the socket, wrapped around a separate component called the wedge. The arrangement is knocked in place, and load gradually eased onto the rope. As the load increases on the wire rope, the wedge become more secure, gripping the rope tighter.

Potted ends or poured sockets

[

edit

]

Poured sockets are used to make a high strength, permanent termination; they are created by inserting the wire rope into the narrow end of a conical cavity which is oriented in-line with the intended direction of strain. The individual wires are splayed out inside the cone or 'capel', and the cone is then filled with molten lead–antimony–tin (Pb80Sb15Sn5) solder or 'white metal capping',[22] zinc[citation needed], or now more commonly, an unsaturated polyester resin compound.[23][24]

See also

[

edit

]

References

[

edit

]

Whether you are an experienced electrician or simply someone who does not know much about electrical systems in residential buildings, chances are you have heard of wires. A wire is responsible for carrying electrical current from the power source to every appliance that requires electricity in a house.

It is one of the basic things you should familiarize yourself with if you want to learn about the electrical system in your house. In this article, we will go over the basic things you need to know about wires and also the most commonly used types of wires in residential buildings. Let’s dive in!

What Happens in a Wire?

When it comes to electrical systems, one term you will often come across is “circuit.” An electrical circuit is essentially a network formed by various components working together. In a closed-loop circuit, the electric current travels from the power source (like a battery) through conductive materials (such as wires and cables), powers the load (like a light bulb) and then makes its way back to the source. It is a complete cycle that allows electricity to flow and do its job.

Now let’s go a little deeper. Electricity is the flow of electrons, and when connected to a power source like a battery, electrons start moving through a wire, creating an electric current. The wire acts as a pathway for the electrons to travel from one place to another, allowing the flow of electricity. The current that flows through a wire is measured in amps; the amps indicate how powerful the wire is for carrying the electric current.

The amount of current (I) flowing through a wire depends on the voltage (V) applied to it and the resistance (R) it possesses. This is called Ohm’s law. Ohm’s law can be expressed as I = V/R

This understanding is vital in designing and troubleshooting electrical systems and ensuring their safe and efficient operation.

Wire Vs. Cable

Let’s start by explaining the difference between a wire and a cable. Wires are like conductors that carry electricity. In our homes, we usually use copper or aluminum wires, although aluminum is not so common anymore. These wires can either be stranded (made of smaller strands) or solid (one solid piece) and are covered with a non-conductive plastic coating (see Figure 1).

Figure 1

On the other hand, a cable consists of a group of wires all bundled up in a single sheathing. (see Figure 2)

Figure 2

In modern homes, most cables include three wires:

1. A hot wire for carrying current from the power source to the device or appliance,

2. A neutral wire that carries current back to the power source, and

3. A ground wire that provides a path for excess electrical current to safely dissipate into the ground.

Figure 3

Wire Sizes

Electrical wire sizes are determined by a unit called “gauge”. The most common gauges used in homes are 10, 12, or 14. Remember, the gauge and diameter have an inverse relationship. As the gauge number goes up, the wire diameter goes down. For instance, a 10-gauge wire is thicker than a 12-gauge wire. Larger wires can handle more amperage and wattage compared to smaller wires. (see Figure 4)

Figure 4

Color Codes

One question that comes to mind is how do we distinguish between wires. An easy way to do this is by looking at their colors. The color of a wire provides valuable information about its purpose. Here is a breakdown of wire colors and their corresponding functions:

• White insulation : Typically considered neutral, but in certain situations, it may serve as a hot lead. In some cases, white wires in existing wiring may be marked with black or red to indicate their conversion to hot wires.

• Green insulation and bare copper: These wires are designated as ground wires.

• Black insulation: This color signifies a hot wire commonly used for switches and outlets.

• Red insulation: Red wires are used as hot wires for switch legs¹ and hardwired smoke detectors

• Blue/Yellow insulation: These colors indicate hot wires that are pulled through a conduit².

Although this color guide can be very useful, we highly recommend always using a volt checker to differentiate between wires. Let’s stay on the safe side.

 ¹A switch leg is the wiring that connects a switch to a light or outlet, allowing the switch to control the flow of electricity to the device.

 ²A conduit is a tube for protecting electrical wiring.

Cable Labeling

When it comes to cables, we are talking about a group of wires in a single sheathing. How would we know how many and what kind of wires are in the cable? The information you need is conveniently printed on the cable’s covering. Here’s what to look for:

• Type: This tells you the specific type of cable, such as NM-B or UF, which indicates its purpose.

• Gauge: The gauge refers to the thickness of the individual wires inside the cable. It is represented by numbers such as 14, 12, 10, and so on.

• Number of wires: The number of wires in the cable is specified after the gauge. For instance, 14/2 means there are two 14-gauge wires within the cable (excluding the ground wire, if present).

• Grounding: If the cable includes a ground wire, it will be indicated by the word “GROUND” or the letter “G.”

• Voltage rating: This number shows the maximum voltage the cable can safely handle.

• UL: The presence of the “UL” label signifies that the cable has undergone safety certification and approval by Underwriters Laboratories.

Now that you know the basics about electrical wires let’s jump into the most common types of wires being used in residential buildings.

1. NM Cable

The most popular type of electrical wire used in homes is called NM cable or Romex cable. Romex is a well-known brand. NM cables are made up of three or more wires bundled together in a flexible plastic sheathing (see Figure 5). They are commonly used for indoor wiring in dry areas and are used to supply power to appliances, fixtures, switches, and outlets. Nowadays, NM cables come in different colors to indicate the wire gauge. Here are the most common NM cables found in modern homes:

• 6-gauge, 55-amp circuits:

   black sheathing

• 8-gauge, 40-amp circuits: black sheathing

• 10-gauge, 30-amp circuits: orange sheathing

• 12-gauge, 20-amp circuits: yellow sheathing

• 14-gauge, 15-amp circuits: white sheathing

Figure 5

2. UF Cable

UF (Underground Feeder) cable is a special version of NM cable. It has insulated hot and neutral wires and also a bare ground wire. What sets UF cables apart from NM cables is that each wire has a solid plastic covering, and the whole cable is covered in a gray outer layer (see Figure 6). This design makes it perfect for wet areas and burying directly in the ground.  Keep in mind that although this wire is waterproof it can not be submerged in water.  So, whenever you need to run wires underground or work on outdoor projects, UF cable is the way to go.

Figure 6

3. THHN/THWN

THHN and THWN are single conductors each with its own insulation. There is a big difference between NM cables and these wires.As we explained earlier, NM cables have multiple wires that are bundled together in a single sheathing. However, THHN and THWN wires are protected by a tubular or plastic conduit, not a sheathing (see Figure 7).

Conduits are often used in unfinished areas like basements and garages, as well as for short exposed runs inside homes, such as wiring connections for garbage disposals and hot water heaters. The price of THHN and THWN wire is similar to NM wire, but you will have the added cost of the conduit, as it is sold separately.  

The letters in THHN and THWN indicate specific properties of the wire insulation.

• “T” stands for thermoplastic,

• “H” means heat-resistant (with “HH” being highly heat-resistant),

• “W” is for wet locations, and

• “N” indicates nylon-coating for extra protection.

Figure 7

4. Low-Voltage

Standard wiring typically operates at 120 volts, but at times low-voltage wiring may be required. It is used for circuits that require less than 50 volts. This type of wiring is perfect for devices that do not need a lot of electricity, such as doorbells, thermostats, sprinkler systems, and landscape lighting.

Low-voltage wiring comes in different gauges, ranging from 12 to 22, and it may have insulation or cable sheathing for added protection. While low-voltage wires generally do not pose a risk of electric shock, it is always a good idea to turn off the electricity before working on any device connected to the wire, just to be safe.

Figure 8

5. Phone and Data

Telephone and data wiring are types of low-voltage wires used for landline phones and internet connections. They are typically made of copper and come in different configurations. Telephone cables can have four or eight wires, while Category 5 (Cat 5) cables, the most common type of household data wire, have eight wires organized in four pairs (see Figure 9). Cat 5 cables can be used for both phone and data transmission and offer better capacity and quality compared to standard phone wires. They are also more affordable than other household wiring options like NM or UF cables.

Figure 9

6. Armored

Armored wire typically consists of multiple conductors, an insulation layer, bedding, a protective outer armor layer, and sheathing (see Figure 10).

Figure 10

The extra armor layer could be made from metallic or non-metallic material and provides an extra layer of protection against physical damage. You can use this type of wiring in areas where NM cables are not permitted due to stricter rules. Also it can be used in outdoor areas where the cable may be exposed to harsh conditions. But remember not all armored wires are weather or chemical resistant. Therefore, make sure to choose the right type.

7. Coaxial

The last cable we want to discuss is the coaxial cable. It is a type of data wire that is becoming less commonly used. It has a round shape with a central copper conductor, surrounded by an insulating layer and a braided wire shield (see Figure 11). It is often used for satellite dishes and distributing television services within a home. Coaxial cable is safe to use and carries minimal voltage, so the risk of electric shock is low, as long as it is not in contact with other current sources.

Figure 11

Conclusion

As we wrap up this article, you have now become familiar with the common types of wire used in residential buildings. This knowledge will come in handy when you are doing electrical work in your own home. However, we want to emphasize the importance of safety when it comes to working with electricity. Electrical tasks can be extremely dangerous, so it is always wise to seek the assistance of a professional. By hiring experts, you can ensure the safety of yourself, your loved ones, and your home.

At Matrix Company Solutions Corp., we prioritize safety and are experts in electrical service replacement or repair. If you are in need of a renovation in Philadelphia, including electrical system work, do not hesitate to reach out to us. We will be more than happy to help!